The struggle for equality and civil rights has been a long and hard-fought battle in the United States. However, one of the most powerful tools used to amplify the voices of African Americans in the early 19th century was the press. Among the first and most influential publications dedicated to giving voice to the African American experience was Freedom’s Journal, founded on March 16, 1827. It was the first newspaper owned and operated by African Americans. Its creation and impact marked a pivotal moment in the history of Black journalism and civil rights.

Established following the end of slavery in New York State, the Freedom’s Journal was founded in NYC by a group of free African American men. Samuel Cornish and John B. Russwurm played an instrumental role in the publication’s success and served as its senior and junior editors, according to PBS. The historic news source came at a time when African Americans were fighting against oppression, marginalization, and the growing racial tensions of the era across the country as a number of states were still entrenched in slavery. Having no outlet to express themselves, learn about Black history, or to protest for civil rights, the Freedom’s Journal provided African Americans with a platform to document and talk about their experiences. It also served as a soundboard, providing a platform to form calls for social justice.

What was inside the Freedom’s Journal?

At its inception, Freedom’s Journal was a subscription-based publication that aimed to address issues of slavery, racism, and civil rights. It was created to combat the rampant negative stereotyping and misrepresentation of African Americans in the mainstream press, which was often hostile to their rights and humanity. Cornish and Russwurm, both well-educated and deeply committed to their cause, envisioned the paper as a means to inform, educate, and inspire Black people to fight for their rights and for an end to slavery.

PBS highlighted that the groundbreaking publication shared similarities with other antebellum reform papers in that it featured news of current events, editorials, and anecdotes while addressing critical issues of the time such as slavery and “colonization.” The concept of colonization was promoted by The American Colonization Society, a predominantly white pro-emigration group founded in 1816 with the goal of sending free Black individuals back to Africa. Although initially opposed to colonization, Freedom’s Journal strongly condemned slavery, advocated for political rights for Black people, and called for the right to vote.

Per Black Past, the newspaper provided its readers with a mix of regional, national, and international news, combining both informative and entertaining content. It aimed to improve the lives of the over 300,000 newly freed Black men and women living in the North. Over 800 copies were distributed throughout 11 states and the District of Columbia. It reached as far as Canada, Haiti, Sierra Leone, and the United Kingdom. Users paid an annual subscription cost of $3 per year.

The newspaper also served as a paper record. It included birth, death, and wedding announcements. Its pages featured articles on improving education, health, and living conditions for Black Americans. To inspire pride in Black achievement, Freedom’s Journal published biographies of prominent Black figures such as Paul Cuffee, a Black Bostonian who owned a trading ship crewed by free Black sailors, Toussaint L’Ouverture, and poet Phillis Wheatley. The paper also had a classified section that included listings for schools, jobs, and affordable housing.

The publication created employment opportunities for formerly enslaved individuals.

A central theme in the paper was the abolition of slavery. At the time, slavery was still a deeply entrenched institution in the Southern states, and much of Freedom’s Journal was dedicated to promoting the abolitionist movement. The paper also highlighted stories of African American success, accomplishments, and achievements, which were often ignored or downplayed by the mainstream media.

While advocating for equality, Russwurm and Cornish also worked to create job opportunities for African Americans through Freedom’s Journal. At various points, the newspaper employed between 14 and 44 agents who were responsible for collecting subscriptions and renewing them.

Who were Russwurm and Cornish? What happened to the Freedom’s Journal?

Cornish and Russwurm were both passionate advocates for African American rights, and their leadership at Freedom’s Journal played a crucial role in its success. Jamaican-born, Russwurm made history as the first African American graduate of Bowdoin College and only the third Black person to earn a degree from an American college, Black Past noted. His cofounder, Cornish, hailed from Sussex County, Delaware, and graduated from the Free African School in Philadelphia. Cornish was also instrumental in establishing Shiloh Presbyterian Church in 1822, the first Black Presbyterian church in Manhattan.

After Cornish resigned as editor of Freedom’s Journal in September 1827, Russwurm took over as the sole editor and soon began advocating for the colonization movement, run by the American Colonization Society. The predominantly white organization wanted to return free African Americans back to the West African colony of Liberia. Russwurm supported the idea.

Sadly, the shift in editorial direction was met with resistance from many of the paper’s readers, who did not support colonization. As a result, Freedom’s Journal ceased publication in March 1829. Historians believe that Cornish and Russwurm may have failed to see eye to eye about the publication’s direction and messaging.

Cornish attempted to revive the newspaper in May 1829 under the new name The Rights of All, but the newspaper operated for less than a year before ultimately shuttering. Nevertheless, the contributions of Cornish and Russwurm to Black journalism cannot be overlooked. Through Freedom’s Journal, they created a platform that not only educated and empowered freed slaves but also helped them gain financial independence.

SEE ALSO:

How Jesse Jackson Changed American Elections

How Harriet Tubman Became A Spy For The United States Army

Which twenty-six Reds will we see?

A good bit has changed about the nature of the Cincinnati Reds roster mix since last we gave our best guess at who might be included on it come Opening Day.

Spencer Steer’s shoulder maintained its issues, and he received a cortisone shot back on March 1st. Andrew Abbott, though, has seen his shoulder progress well enough that he threw a pair of IP in a AAA game just yesterday. Rhett Lowder is still behind schedule, unfortunately, but at least it looks like he’s moving forward and not backwards. Speaking of ‘back,’ Tyler Stephenson headed for an MRI after lingering back pain.

Rule 5 draftee Cooper Bowman was sent back to the Oaksacvegas Athletics, while former top prospect Noelvi Marte was officially sent down to AAA.

That’s a lot to process, as are the risks of losing players in camp as non-roster invitees if they aren’t selected to start the season. Same goes for players with no options remaining, as they very well could be scooped up on waivers if not placed on the roster from day one.

With Opening Day now less that two weeks away (!!), here’s our latest, greatest estimate of which Reds will make up the Opening Day roster.

Catcher

I’ve got Tyler Stephenson (1) still on here alongside Jose Trevino (2), as all initial reports on Ty Steve’s back are that his issue is minor. It may mean we see more of Jose in the lineup early on, so far there’s nothing to suggest these aren’t the two backstops they’ll carry from day one.

Infielders (5)

Elly De La Cruz (3) and Matt McLain (4) are the cornerstones of this team, and they’ll form the middle infield. Christian Encarnacion-Strand (5) and Jeimer Candelario (6) seem to be locks in the corner rotation, while Santiago Espinal (7) has solidified his spot as the do-it-all infielder in reserve.

Gavin Lux

Gavin Lux (8)! He’ll see time at 3B, 2B, LF, and even at DH when the time is right. Since I’ve got Spencer Steer beginning the year on the IL, Lux’s versatility will help offset that usually created by having Steer on the roster for the time being.

Outfielders (5)

TJ Friedl (9) is back and healthy and poised to be the everyday CF and leadoff man all 4-WAR style once again. He’ll be flanked by Jake Fraley (10) and Austin Hays (11) most days, with Stuart Fairchild (12) a RHH option on days when Terry Francona wants to stack those up against southpaws. That brings us to Blake Dunn (13), whose RHH ability wins out in this mix over Will Benson since Lux, a LHH, is filling the ‘move anywhere when it’s time to switch’ role previously occupied by Steer, a RHH. In other words, I think Francona will choose to have one more righty bat around than another lefty.

Starting Rotation

Hunter Greene (14) will start on Opening Day, as well he should. He’ll be flanked in some order by each of Nick Martinez (15), Brady Singer (16), and Nick Lodolo (17) for sure at this point. Since the season is long as all heck, I just don’t think the Reds will rush back Andrew Abbott at anything less than ‘full stretched out,’ so I expect him to begin on the IL and miss a turn or two through the rotation - if anything, that may make him even more valuable down the stretch in August/September. I think the Reds carry Carson Spiers (18) as something of ‘starter on an expected bullpen day’ for the time being.

Bullpen

I don’t believe Graham Ashcraft (19) starts the year in the minors - rather, I think he’s carried as the piggyback guy for Spiers’ turn through the rotation with the expecation that he can fill-in for multiple IP when needed in a role akin to how Martinez began last year. Brent Suter (20), Sam Moll (21), and Taylor Rogers (22) form the LHP corps in the ‘pen, while Alexis Díaz (23) will resume his role as the closer. RHP options Emilio Pagán (24) and Scott Barlow (25) have guaranteed money on their deals, so they’ll be down there until they prove ten times they shouldn’t be, leaving one final spot that I’m expected to be filled by Tony Santillan (26) - he pitched well enough last year to deserve it and he’s out of options, so that’s a no-brainer.

Notes

Steer and Abbott are the two notable omissions here. Despite how dismal the Reds have begun seasons in recent memory (and how much that has folded any and all optimism entering those years immediately), I just think they’ll play it safe with them (and Lowder). Abbott getting ~27-28 starts is still very much viable, as is Steer surpassing 550 PA.

Ian Gibaut being back in camp is cool, and he’s fanned 8 against a lone walk in 7.0 IP so far this spring. He’s not on the roster, however, as a NRI on a minor league deal, so I don’t expect him to beat out the rest of the options above. That said, I do think he’s showing enough right now to firmly be in the mix as the first bullpen arm promoted when the inevitable dings happen to the rostered names ahead of him.

Chase Petty has looked really, really solid so far in camp, and at this rate he’ll make his debut (and more) as a Red at some point this year...just not on Opening Day or in the first few turns of the rotation, assuming all goes well elsewhere.