From Colonial Legacies To Contemporary Strategic Evolution Of Indian Ocean Region – OpEd
The Indian ocean spreads all the way south to Antarctica, covering almost 27 percent of the maritime space of the world and 14 percent of the total globe. It is described as a water-body between Africa,the Antarctic Ocean, Asia, and Australia. For centuries, the Indian Ocean Region has been a great spectator of the fall and rise of civilizations, various empires including the Phoenicians, the Arabs, the Chinese, and the Portuguese-as an eternal quest for spices, textiles and precious stones.
The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) has a long history of cultural exchange, dating back over 4,000 years before the Vikings' arrival in North America. The region has been a hub of trade activity, both coastal and transoceanic, since around 5000 BC. By the start of the common era (CE), ancient port cities like Berenike and Hormos on the Red Sea had established significant trade connections with India, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas across the region.
The ancient Sassanian Empire's patronage (224-651) propelled Persian traders to dominance in the Gulf and Western Indian Ocean, their mercantile prowess rivaled only by the seafaring Arabs. The Arabs' extensive reach spanned India, East Africa, and the East Indies, a testament to their maritime expertise. However, the Sassanian dynasty's downfall at the hands of Muslim Arabs between 637-651 marked a turning point. The Arabs' commercial ascendancy peaked in the 9th century, with Ceylon and Calicut emerging as crucial entrepots, bridging the eastern and western oceanic trade routes.
Vasco de Gama, was a Portuguese navigator whose voyage to India between 1497-99 and 1502-03 opened up a sea route from Western Europe to the East, by way of Cape of Good Hope. This pioneering feat heralded a new epoch in world history, as the Portuguese navigator was elevated to the esteemed rank of Admiral in 1502. The arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean marked the dawn of a new era, as they established themselves as the first Europeans to set foot in this realm. Their intentions were clear: to assert economic dominance over the coveted Asian trade, with a particular penchant for pepper and spices. Fuelled by an animosity towards the Muslims, the Portuguese embarked on a strategic conquest, claiming key ports such as Colombo, Socotra, Goa, Melaka, Hormuz, and Diu between 1505 and 1535. This calculated expansion enabled them to wield control over the Indian Ocean's trade, imposing licenses, customs duties, and stringent regulations on merchandise. The Portuguese grip was unyielding, dictating the flow of commerce and stifling the aspirations of rival nations.
The Portuguese monopoly was a goldmine, flooding their coffers with wealth as they exploited Europe's craving for Asian spices. It also allowed them to simultaneously sideline Muslim traders who had thus far been dominating regional trade. The markets dealing with these commodities namely Aden, Jeddah, Basra, Cairo,Alexandria, Aleppo, Sofala, Hormuz, Diu and Melaka, consequently fell into decline. By early 17th century, however the Portuguese hold in the IOR was in shreds, dwindling rapidly as they lost major ports including Cochin and Colombo.
As the 16th century drew to a close, the Dutch astutely capitalized on the burgeoning opportunities in the Indian Ocean, inaugurating their mercantile endeavors in this lucrative region. In 1604, they forged a strategic alliance with the Zamorin, the venerable Emperor of Malabar, united in their quest to expel the entrenched Portuguese presence. Recognizing the formidable Portuguese stronghold at pivotal locations, the Dutch devised a sagacious plan to establish a foothold in Java, whence they would launch a concerted effort to infiltrate and dismantle the Portuguese dominion.
The Dutch mercantile agenda was singularly focused on the coveted spice trade, encompassing cinnamon, cloves, pepper, and nutmeg. The establishment of the Dutch East India Company in 1602 was a deliberate measure to regulate intra-Dutch competition, mitigating the uneven distribution of profits garnered from the lucrative Indian spice trade. State encouragement prompted merchants to consolidate their resources, culminating in the grant of a trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean to the Dutch East India Company. Following their conquest of Malacca in 1641, the Dutch allied themselves with the formidable King of Ceylon, collaborating to vanquish the Portuguese. The culmination of this campaign was the protracted siege of Colombo by the Dutch fleet, ultimately resulting in its capitulation in 1654.
The French, thwarted in their attempts to gain a foothold in Ceylon in 1670 against the indomitable Dutch, redirected their ambitions towards the fertile shores of Madagascar and Mauritius. The French fleet saw it’s best days under Admira de Suffren in 1782-84. During this epoch, the French forged a strategic alliance with the redoubtable Hyder Ali, supporting his Carnatic Campaigns - a series of epic struggles that convulsed the 18th century, as the British, French, Marhatas, and Mysore vied for dominance over the coveted coastal strip. Subsequently, French also managed to capture Trincomalee port in Sri Lanka.
As the 18th century dawned, the once-mighty Mughal Empire began to exhibit fissures, its grandeur slowly succumbing to the ravages of time. The decline of Mughal Empire and the rise of British in India, amongst other fates is attributable to the former’s obsession landward concerns. Their obsession with terrestrial conquests led them to neglect the vast expanse of Indian shores, forsaking the strategic advantages afforded by their extensive coastline. This shortsightedness, aptly described as 'sea blindness', afflicted not only the ruling elite but also large swaths of the population, leaving them oblivious to the maritime future. This vacuum enabled outside powers with strong commercial interests and potent navies to exploit the subcontinental riches and thus establish a foothold in India.
The English and French commenced their Indian Ocean trading activities in the wake of Dutch. Following the Dutch example, they set their own East India Companies in 1600 and 1664 respectively. The Dutch East India Company, like Portuguese desired control of spice and pepper trade. Dutch were initially more successful than British East India Company. The two had dissimilarity as well. While the Dutch East India Company concentrated on in-country and inter Asian Trade, the British East India focused on trade to Europe.
Using the seapower effectively, the British gradually built up their land power, through Madras in 1749 and Bengal in 1756. The Napoleonic wars in Europe helped the British take over Ceylon, Java, Malacca and the Cape from Dutch and French possessions, especially Mauritius, from the French. The ports of Madras, Bombay and Calcutta were established by British in mid to late 17th Century to wean the transoceanic trade away from traditional port cities. Despite careful application of coercion to attract Asian traders, it still look a good seventy odd years to Bombay to become more formidable than its neighbouring port Surat. By 1800, another commodity tea had entered the trade market in a big way. British exported opium (cultivated in Bihar, East India) to China in return for tea. This trade and its revenge grew sharply with a rise in tea consumption throughout the European Market.
After setting up factories in port cities, the British proceeded to set these further inland near the production centres. It sent the clear message that the British were in it for the long haul. The advent of steamships and opening of the Suez Canal (1869) were two major developments that transformed trading patterns in the region by shortening the time and distances involved. Moving on the trail of timeline, 20th century witnessed the birth of two new yet currently regional stakeholders of Indian Ocean - Pakistan and India. In contemporary world shaped by China – U.S. power struggle, the pursuit of control over the Indian Ocean and its crucial trade routes has significantly elevated its strategic significance. China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) is a physical demonstration how Beijing is building up infrastructure and gradually expanding its presence in its surrounding regions, particularly Indian Ocean Region (IOR). To protect its economic interests in Indian Ocean, China is gradually increasing its naval capabilities and outreach.
In essence, as the tides of the time continue to shift, the region’s importance remains constant, beckoning new stakeholders to its shores.